Table 1 Viruses, taxonomy, effects on male reproductive tract, laboratory strategies of seminal fluid purification

HPV

Papillomaviridae

DNA

epididymis, testicles, vas deferens, prostate and within the seminal fluid

sperm concentration, motility, morphology; increased sperm DNA fragmentation

reduced pregnancy rates, increased risk of miscarriage

To partner and collateral event on pregnancy

Sperm-washing/ swim-up technique with the addition of hyaluronidase

[18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26]

HSV

Herpesviridae

DNA

mucosal surface, nerve cells of peripheral ganglia, external genitalia MGT

low sperm count, increased viscosity, reduced sperm motility and apoptotic death

miscarriage

Vertical transmission

None: washing ineffective

[27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34]

HIV

Retroviridae

RNA

lymphocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells in prostate and seminal vesicles

volume, motility and morphology

To partner and collateral event on pregnancy

sequential density gradient, swim-up and washing followed by (RT)-PCR for viral genome

(https://www.who.int/health-topics/hiv-aids) [35,36,37,38]

HCMV

Herpesviridae

DNA

Sperm concentration and morphology

Severe neonatal disorders (hearing loss, severe neurological and sensorineural damage)

Vertical transmission

multiple washing or gradient separation methods

[30, 31, 39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47]

HBV

HEPADNAviridae

DNA

Testis cells (spermatogonia, spermatocytes, spermatids and sperms; Sertoli cells)

Motility and viability, mature sperms apoptosis, increased sperm DNA fragmentation

unlike

None

(https://www.who.int/health-topics/hepatitis) [48,49,50,51,52,53]

HCV

Flaviviridae

RNA

sperm count, motility and morphology

None (low fertilization rate in selected report)

To partner

sequential density gradient, swim-up and washing. Viral genome assessed by (RT)-PCR

[16, 53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62]

ZIKV

Flaviviridae

RNA

Testis (germ and Sertoli cells)

sperm concentration, motility, morphology

Congenital microcephaly, low birth weight, long-term effect on developing growth

Not reported

None: washing ineffective

[63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75]

EBOV

Filoviridae

RNA

testes, seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands

Not reported

Not reported

To partner

Not reported

[68, 76,77,78,79]

WNV

Flaviviridae

RNA

Not reported

Not reported

unlike

Not reported

[80,81,82,83,84]

MuV

Paramyxoviridae

RNA

Testis (Sertoli, Leydig and germinal cells)

sperm concentration, motility and morphology

Not reported

unlike

Not reported

[85,86,87,88,89]

SARS-CoV-2

Coronaviridae

RNA

Testis (germinal cells or in Sertoli and Leydig cells)

sperm concentration, progressive motility, morphology, DNA fragmentation

Not reported

Not reported

Not reported

[90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103]